Nepal

Landscapes and the shape of a meal

Nepal’s food traditions span the Himalayan highlands, central hills, fertile valleys, and the southern Terai. Geography shapes what can be grown, kept, or brought from elsewhere, while community traditions give familiar ingredients different forms and meanings. The country’s kitchens are therefore better understood as many related foodways than as one fixed national menu.

A useful starting point is dal bhat tarkari: lentil soup, cooked rice, and vegetables, often accompanied by achar, a pickle or relish. The combination is widely recognized, but its ingredients and accompaniments vary. Where rice is less available, other grains and preparations such as flatbreads or dhido—a cooked flour porridge—also have a place. Meat may be included, but it is not required to make sense of the meal’s basic structure.

The Nepal Tourism Board identifies distinct Newar and Thakali cuisines alongside the broader meal pattern. In the Kathmandu Valley, Newar preparations include dishes such as bara and chatamari. In the Terai, documented Tharu foods include dhikri, steamed rice dough, and taas, seasoned meat served with flattened rice. These examples show how local and community identities sit within a wider, connected culinary landscape.

Exchange, movement, and culinary change

Nepal’s position between the Himalayan region and the plains has brought its foodways into contact with neighboring traditions. Documented influences include Indian and Tibetan styles of cooking, while the country’s ethnic and geographic diversity has supported distinctive local practices. These connections are best understood as exchange and adaptation rather than as evidence that every dish has one simple origin.

The noodle soup thukpa illustrates this circulation. Its name refers to a family of noodle soups associated with Tibetan food traditions; versions are also popular in Nepal and elsewhere in the Himalaya. Ingredients and methods can differ from one household or area to another. A Nepalese-style bowl may combine noodles, broth, vegetables, and meat, while other versions omit meat or use different noodles. Its presence in Nepal is part of a broader history of movement across Himalayan communities, not a claim of exclusive national origin.

The Kathmandu Valley also has a long-standing role as a cultural meeting place. The Nepal Tourism Board describes Kathmandu as the country’s cultural metropolis since Nepal’s unification in the eighteenth century, with traditions blending into a wider national identity. That history does not erase community distinctions: Newar cuisine remains a specific tradition within the valley, while Thakali food is likewise recognized as distinct. Shared staples and neighboring influences coexist with local forms and names.

Grains, greens, pulses, and preserved foods

Rice and lentils anchor many meals, with vegetables, pickles, and other accompaniments completing the plate. Where rice cultivation is difficult or supplies are limited, grains such as maize, wheat, millet, buckwheat, and barley are also documented. These can become breads, porridges, or other cooked preparations. Potatoes and vegetables such as leafy greens, radish, beans, cabbage, and pumpkin add variety, while the exact combination depends on place and availability.

Fermentation and drying extend the usefulness of vegetables. Gundruk is made from fermented leafy greens, including mustard and radish leaves; after fermentation, the greens are dried and can be stored. It may be rehydrated and cooked as a soup or used as a relish. Sinki is a related but different preserved food made from radish roots. The distinction matters: the two are not interchangeable names for the same ingredient.

Spices and aromatics season these staple foods. Recipes and descriptions mention garlic, ginger, cumin, turmeric, and chili, while timur appears in some preparations. Mustard oil is also used in documented foods. In the high Himalaya, yak and other livestock provide meat and dairy products, while rice and some other goods may arrive from lower areas. This is a varied pantry, not a universal list for every Nepali household.

Sour, aromatic, warming, and varied

Many Nepali meals balance a mild staple with more strongly seasoned sides. Rice or another grain offers a quiet base; lentils contribute a soft, savory texture; vegetables, curries, and achar bring additional spice, acidity, or freshness. The arrangement invites combinations of components rather than treating every element as a separate course. The balance changes with the cook and the ingredients at hand.

Fermented gundruk has a tangy character that sets it apart from fresh greens. In soup, its distinct flavor becomes part of the broth; as a relish, it can sharpen a meal of rice and lentils. Achar is a broad term for a pickle or relish, and its ingredients vary. It can provide a concentrated, spicy or sour counterpoint without replacing the meal’s grain and pulse foundation.

A bowl of thukpa offers another kind of balance: broth, noodles, vegetables, and sometimes meat in one serving. Ginger, garlic, and spices may make the soup aromatic, while chili levels and noodle forms differ across versions. For a contrasting texture and taste, sel roti is a ring-shaped rice bread, crisp on the outside and softer within. It is lightly sweet in many descriptions, though ingredients such as cardamom, banana, or milk are not fixed in every household’s version.

Festival foods and community transmission

Food has a visible role in Nepal’s festivals and celebrations. The Nepal Tourism Board notes that food is important to festival observances, and sel roti is widely associated with occasions including Dashain and Tihar. It is also prepared for ceremonies and weddings. Making the rings in quantity and sharing or sending them to relatives connects a familiar rice-based food with hospitality and family ties. These practices are shared across Nepali communities, while particular recipes and methods can vary.

Newar food traditions in the Kathmandu Valley include a range of preparations beyond everyday rice and lentils. Chatamari, a thin rice-flour preparation, and choila, seasoned meat, are documented as Newar foods. Bara, a savory lentil patty, is another named example. Their presence helps describe a community repertoire; it should not imply that every dish eaten in Kathmandu is Newar.

In the eastern Terai, bagiya is a Tharu festival food made from rice dough. Accounts describe regional variation in its form and filling. Dhikri, another Tharu preparation, is steamed rice dough. Such foods demonstrate how a shared ingredient can be shaped into distinct community dishes. The important point is not to assign a single custom to all of Nepal, but to recognize how occasions, place, and transmission sustain several culinary traditions side by side.

Steaming, frying, simmering, and preserving

Nepali cooking includes techniques suited to very different ingredients. Lentils are simmered into dal, while rice is cooked as bhat. Vegetables can be cooked as tarkari or preserved as pickles. These methods build a meal from distinct parts, each with its own texture and seasoning. In mountain regions, soups provide another way to bring grain, vegetables, and sometimes meat together in a hot dish.

For sel roti, rice is soaked and ground or otherwise prepared as a batter, then poured into hot oil in a continuous ring and fried. The batter’s flow and the oil’s heat affect whether the ring holds its shape and cooks evenly. Some cooks form the ring by hand; a pouring vessel is another documented option. The ingredient proportions, resting time, and additions such as milk, ghee, or spices vary, so no single recipe describes every version.

Preserving greens for gundruk involves wilting, fermenting, and drying leafy vegetables. The resulting ingredient can be stored and later soaked or cooked. This differs from making a fresh vegetable soup: fermentation and drying transform the greens before they enter the pot. Steaming offers a separate technique for foods such as dhikri, and noodle soups require the cook to bring broth and noodles together while keeping their textures distinct.

Everyday meals and shared occasions

A common meal structure brings rice, lentils, and vegetables together, with achar or other sides adding contrast. The Nepal Tourism Board describes dal, bhat, and tarkari as a regular Nepali meal and notes that momo dumplings are popular snacks. In some homes, flatbreads or dhido take a place alongside or instead of rice. What reaches the table depends on community, region, and availability; the familiar structure should not be mistaken for a single fixed menu.

Festival and ceremonial occasions bring different foods into focus. Sel roti may be made in batches for Dashain, Tihar, weddings, and other celebrations, and may be offered or sent to family and friends. Newar community meals have their own named preparations, while Tharu foods such as bagiya are connected with particular festivals in the Terai. These examples describe documented traditions rather than a ritual shared identically across the country.

Serving style also varies. A meal may consist of several components arranged together, or a bowl of thukpa may combine broth, noodles, vegetables, and meat. Gundruk soup can accompany rice, while sel roti is served as a festive bread or snack. Eating practices are not uniform across households or settings, and modern dining arrangements exist alongside customary ways of sharing meals.

A glossary of foods and meal terms

These terms name specific foods and preparations, not interchangeable labels for a single national menu. Their forms and ingredients can vary by household and community.

• Dal bhat tarkari: A meal combination of lentil soup (dal), cooked rice (bhat), and vegetables (tarkari), often accompanied by achar.
• Achar: A pickle or relish served as an accompaniment; ingredients and preparation vary.
• Gundruk: Fermented and dried leafy greens, commonly made with mustard or radish leaves. It can be cooked as soup or served as a relish.
• Sinki: A preserved food made from fermented and dried radish roots, distinct from leafy gundruk.
• Sel roti: A ring-shaped bread made from rice batter and deep-fried; widely associated with festivals and ceremonies.
• Thukpa: A family of noodle soups associated with Tibetan food traditions and popular in Nepal, with differing noodles and additions.
• Dhikri: A Tharu preparation of rice dough cooked by steaming.
• Bara: A savory lentil patty documented within Newar cuisine.
• Chatamari: A thin, rice-based Newar preparation, sometimes topped with other ingredients.
• Dhido: A cooked flour porridge made from grains such as millet or barley, used in some households in place of rice.

One country, many cuisines

Chitwan and the Terai

The Terai’s documented foodways include preparations associated with Tharu communities. Dhikri is made from rice dough and steamed; taas is described as seasoned meat served with flattened rice. Accounts also document bagiya, a rice-dough food associated with Tharu communities and festival occasions, with variations in shape and filling. These foods offer a perspective distinct from accounts focused on Nepal’s high mountains, while representing particular communities rather than every Terai household.

Kathmandu Valley

The Kathmandu Valley is a cultural centre where several traditions meet, and it is also home to a distinct Newar culinary repertoire. Documented Newar foods include bara, a savory lentil patty, chatamari, a thin rice-based preparation, and choila, seasoned meat. These examples help locate a community tradition within the wider valley: a dish’s presence in Kathmandu alone does not make it Newar. The valley’s shared food landscape includes both community-specific foods and broader Nepali meal patterns.

Thak Khola and Thakali foodways

Thakali cuisine is documented as a distinct food tradition, even though its meals share staples such as lentils and rice with other Nepali foodways. Accounts describe Thakali food as connected to the Himalayan region and to routes linking highland and lowerland areas. The combination of familiar staples with a recognized community repertoire is more useful than assigning a dish to the area solely because it contains rice or lentils. Available descriptions support this broad distinction, but do not establish a definitive list of dishes unique to Thak Khola.

Cook

• Rice flour sel roti with banana
• Nepali rice and milk kheer
• Nepalese Gundruk Soup

Pantry and recipes

Most consumed ingredients. Rice is the main staple consumed by the majority of the population; maize, wheat, barley, and millet are also consumed. Estimated annual household food consumption in 2022/23: cereals, 136.0 kg/person/year; vegetables, 80.3; milk, 53; tubers (potatoes), 28.7; fruit, 27.6.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National averages for food consumed within the household in 2022/23; report categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. Reported quantities use food-specific recall periods; some unobserved quantities are estimated from expenditure or value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption, without measuring individual intake. Quantities eaten outside home are excluded. The retained cultural description has no observation date and does not establish a quantitative ranking.

Timing and company

Meal times. In this sample, the typical morning pattern included tea at about 07.00 and rice with side dishes at about 08.00.

466 lactating women aged 17–44 in Bhaktapur. January 2008–February 2009; local sample of lactating women. Three 24-hour dietary recalls per participant on different days, including weekends. Partial coverage: does not represent Nepal’s entire population or describe current habits.

Cooking frequency. In 2022, respondents reported cooking an average of 7.2 lunches and dinners personally at home per week.

Observation period: 2022. People aged 15 and older in Nepal. Home cooking of lunch and dinner in the previous seven days. Cookpad module of the Gallup World Poll, using probability samples and weighting for national estimates. Excludes breakfast and does not measure days cooked, preparation duration or where food was eaten. The appendix does not report Nepal’s response rate.

Weekdays and weekends. In the rural sample, weekday–weekend variation appeared small. Variation within each person could not be assessed.

Fieldwork in August 2003 and April 2004. Cautious interpretation: one observation per person; does not establish equivalence or quantify differences in timing, duration or meal count.

Meals per day. On the recalled day, 39.7% of men and 60.5% of women in the sample ate lunch.

Observation period: 2003–2004. Adults in rural Hindu communities in Nawalparasi. Fieldwork in August 2003 and April 2004. Structured 24-hour recall developed from weighed food records. Local historical coverage; does not represent all of Nepal or current habits.

Eating at home and away. Participants described girls as usually eating at home, although some schoolgirls bought snacks from carts outside school during breaks.

Eating together. Accounts described social pressure against adolescent girls eating outside home in places where boys were also eating.

Qualitative data collected in 2013. Partial coverage: historical local perceptions and norms; no representative percentages, national comparison or follow-up of later changes.

Daily energy distribution. Among the porters studied, breakfast provided 12% of daily energy, lunch 41%, dinner 43% and snacks 4%.

Six male Nepalese porters included in the dietary analysis. The 2019 Kanchenjunga expedition; distribution of recorded energy intake during the trek. Two food diaries on non-consecutive days per participant; amounts estimated with a picture atlas and nutrients calculated using FOODCONS. Partial coverage: small sample of mountain workers during an expedition, with specific diets and exertion. Does not represent habitual intake in Nepal.

Cereals and plant foods

Cereals and cereal products. The cereal category accounted for an estimated 136.0 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National household food consumption in 2022/23, using the published categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. reported quantities with food-specific recall periods; some quantities imputed from value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption; does not measure individual intake and excludes quantities consumed outside home. The figure groups cereals together; it does not separate each grain or establish a uniform dry or cooked weight basis.

Pulses. The pulse category accounted for an estimated 15.2 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National household food consumption in 2022/23, using the published categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. reported quantities with food-specific recall periods; some quantities imputed from value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption; does not measure individual intake and excludes quantities consumed outside home. It does not separate lentils, chickpeas or beans; the table does not specify a uniform dry or cooked weight basis.

Vegetables. The vegetable category accounted for an estimated 80.3 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National household food consumption in 2022/23, using the published categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. reported quantities with food-specific recall periods; some quantities imputed from value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption; does not measure individual intake and excludes quantities consumed outside home. It does not identify the most consumed species, frequency or the shares eaten raw or cooked.

Fruit. The fruit category accounted for an estimated 27.6 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National household food consumption in 2022/23, using the published categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. reported quantities with food-specific recall periods; some quantities imputed from value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption; does not measure individual intake and excludes quantities consumed outside home. This table does not break the category down by fruit or distinguish fresh, dried or processed fruit.

Potatoes, roots and tubers. The category “tubers (potatoes)” accounted for an estimated 28.7 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National household food consumption in 2022/23, using the published categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. reported quantities with food-specific recall periods; some quantities imputed from value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption; does not measure individual intake and excludes quantities consumed outside home. The report category is retained; it does not establish separate quantities for cassava, sweet potato or other roots.

Bread. Roti, described as unleavened bread, was among the foods commonly consumed at lunch in the study sample.

Local study from January 2008 to February 2009. Partial coverage: identifies a bread type in this sample; does not quantify national bread consumption or its composition. Does not represent current habits throughout Nepal.

Protein foods

Meat. In the sample, mean meat intake was 47 g/day; it was mainly buffalo meat.

466 lactating women aged 17–44 in Bhaktapur. January 2008–February 2009; local consumption recorded in the survey. Three 24-hour dietary recalls per participant, with quantity and recipe estimation. Partial coverage: historical local sample of lactating women, without national representativeness. Does not separate all meat types or support comparison with carcass weight; the weight basis must not be extrapolated.

Eggs. The egg category accounted for an estimated 2.8 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National averages for food consumed within the household in 2022/23; report categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. Reported quantities use food-specific recall periods; some unobserved quantities are estimated from expenditure or value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption, without measuring individual intake or quantities outside home. The kg unit is retained; no conversion into an egg count.

Milk and dairy products. The milk category accounted for an estimated 53 kg/person/year of household consumption.

People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; household quantities expressed per person. National averages for food consumed within the household in 2022/23; report categories. Original analysis of NLSS IV microdata. Reported quantities use food-specific recall periods; some unobserved quantities are estimated from expenditure or value and the group unit price. Partial coverage: reported or imputed household consumption, without measuring individual intake or quantities outside home. Does not separate cheese, yoghurt or other dairy products; no conversion from kg to litres.

Fish and seafood. In 2016/17, household-reported fish consumption was 2.2 kg per person per year.

Observation period: 2016/17. Nepal’s household population represented by the national survey. Annualized household fish consumption; collection from September 2016 to July 2017. Multistage urban and rural stratified sampling; quantities recalled for the preceding seven days and annualized by the survey. Includes purchases, own production and other sources. Partial coverage: aggregate fish category, without a verified breakdown by species, shellfish or fresh versus preserved. Household quantity per person, not measured individual intake; historical data subject to recall and annualization.

Protein sources. In the 1965–1966 sample, rice and other grains supplied 70% of estimated protein consumption.

Observation period: 1965-1966. 957 households with 6321 people in 18 villages and one urban area of Nepal. Historical result for the study sites; cereal share of dietary protein. Previous-day recall of food prepared and eaten by the entire household. Nutrients calculated for each village and divided by the people included; the authors describe these as estimated minimum intakes. Partial, historical coverage; does not represent the current diet or measured individual intake. The survey ended before all planned sites were visited. Possible underestimation from recall and seasonality; no complete allocation among legumes, meat, fish, eggs and dairy is reported here.

Fats, flavours and condiments

Cooking fats. In 2022/23, household consumption of oils and fats was 11.0 kg per person per year. As culinary examples, mustard oil appears in timmure golbhenda sauce and ghee is used to dress dal.

Nepal’s household population represented by the national survey; culinary examples concern selected heritage recipes. Annual household quantity in the oils and fats category in 2022/23. Culinary uses come from a cookbook published in May 2018. Living standards survey microdata analysis. Reported quantities were annualized and, for some foods, imputed from expenditure. Recipes were read separately for the examples of use. Partial coverage: the aggregate does not separate oil types, butter and ghee, or measure individual intake. Excludes quantities of food eaten outside the home; imputation and recall limit comparability. Culinary examples do not establish consumption shares.

Herbs and spices. In 2022/23, household consumption in the spices category was 6.8 kg per person per year. As culinary examples, methi or fenugreek is used in pickles and vegetables, and timmur in sauces, salads and vegetables.

Nepal’s household population represented by the national survey; examples of culinary uses recorded in a heritage cookbook. Aggregate annual spice quantity in 2022/23; culinary descriptions published in May 2018. Analysis of household quantities reported in the living standards survey, with annualization and imputation for some foods. Methi and timmur entries were read to identify uses, without calculating frequencies. Partial coverage: no separate national quantities by spice or for all fresh herbs. Does not measure individual intake or include quantities of food eaten outside the home. The cookbook is an editorial selection, without representative recipe or population prevalence.

Sauces and condiments. Examples of sauces include timmure golbhenda, made with tomato, green chili, garlic and timmur and finished with mustard oil, and tilko chhop, made with ground sesame, chuk and timmur. Chuk is a concentrate of citrus juices.

Qualitative examples from a cookbook published in May 2018, without a population consumption observation period. Partial, qualitative coverage: examples of condiments, without an exhaustive inventory, consumed quantities or national frequency. Selected recipes may have regional and household variations.

Meal composition

Breakfast composition. In the study group, breakfast included tea at about 07.00 and rice with side dishes at about 08.00; side dishes included vegetable curry, lentil soup and pickles.

Local observations from January 2008 to February 2009. Partial, local and historical coverage: does not represent Nepal’s whole population or current diet. Recall may introduce errors, and selecting lactating women limits comparison with other groups.

Main meal composition. The dal bhat set combines rice, lentils, vegetables and achar as a sauce or dip, with yogurt or buttermilk.

Desserts and sweets. Examples of desserts include kheer, rice cooked in milk, and sikarni, drained yogurt with nuts and spice aromas.

Examples from a cookbook published in May 2018, without a population consumption observation period. Partial qualitative coverage: culinary examples, without national frequency, consumed portion size or an exhaustive inventory. Preparations may vary between regions and households.

Dinner composition. In the study group, dinner commonly included rice with side dishes such as vegetable curry, lentil soup and pickles.

Appetisers and snacks. Snacking was reported by 76% of the women studied; the most common foods were buns, doughnuts, samosas and biscuits.

Observation period: 2008–2009. 466 lactating women aged 17–44 in Bhaktapur, Nepal. Local observations from January 2008 to February 2009. Three 24-hour dietary recalls on non-consecutive days, using trained interviewers, quantity estimation and recipe collection. Partial, local and historical coverage: does not represent Nepal’s whole population or current diet. Recall may introduce errors, and selecting lactating women limits comparison with other groups.

Portion sizes. The rice portion consumed during one meal had a mean weight of 498·2 g in the March–June 2014 sample.

84 rice observations in a study of 95 adults from 48 rural households with a pregnant woman in Dhanusha and Mahottari, southern Nepal. Observed cooked rice weight per meal, March–June 2014; the centred dot is the decimal separator used in the publication. Food servings and leftovers were weighed over one meal; the observed weight column is distinguished from subsequent estimates using photographs. Partial, local coverage: not a typical national portion or a recommendation. Selected households with pregnant women; few food items observed per participant. Do not confuse with raw rice, daily quantity or atlas image sizes.

Techniques and equipment

Cooking techniques. Methods in these preparations include steaming momo, deep-frying lentil phulaura and grilling meat sekuwa over charcoal.

Culinary description from a cookbook published in May 2018, without a population consumption observation period. Partial qualitative coverage: examples do not quantify the frequency of each method or the proportion of households using it. The editorial recipe selection does not represent all menus or regions.

Vegetable preparation. In the example tarkari, potato and cauliflower are cooked with oil and the pan covered. In timmure golbhenda sauce, tomato and green chili are grilled before blending.

Selected preparations from Nepali heritage cuisine; not a household sample. Culinary description from a cookbook published in May 2018, without a population consumption observation period. Reading ingredients, instructions and notes of recipes selected and documented by culinary and hospitality professionals. Partial qualitative coverage: recipe examples, without national percentages of raw, boiled, roasted, sautéed or pickled vegetables.

Food preservation. Fermentation and drying are combined in the green leafy vegetables used to prepare gundrukko jhol soup.

Culinary description from a cookbook published in May 2018, without a population consumption observation period. Partial qualitative coverage: an example of preservation by fermentation and drying, without household frequency or verified data on freezing, salting or canning.

Fermented foods. Examples include fermented-soybean kinema in a Himalayan regional variant of sandheko, fermented green leaves in gundrukko jhol and fermented bamboo shoots in pancha kwa.

Culinary description from a cookbook published in May 2018, without a population consumption observation period. Partial qualitative coverage: selected preparations and ingredients, with regional variants. Does not establish national consumption frequency or quantities of fermented foods per person.

Kitchen equipment. In 2022, 26.6% of Nepal’s households reported having a refrigerator.

Nepal’s households represented in the national demographic and health survey. Reported refrigerator possession; data collected from January 5 to June 22, 2022. Two-stage stratified survey, with cluster and household selection and weighting for national estimates. Reading of the total household column in the possessions table. Partial coverage: refrigerator, without verified shares for ovens, microwaves or pressure cookers. Reported possession does not establish working condition, capacity or food preservation use; it is not a measure of cooking frequency.

Drinks

Everyday drinks. In 2016, 12.5% of the women surveyed had consumed market-purchased drinks with added sugar the previous day, and 12.7% had consumed sugar-sweetened drinks made at home.

Women aged 15–49 in Nepal; the table includes 2351 unweighted participants, pregnant and non-pregnant. Reported consumption on the day before interview, national 2016 survey. Survey stratified by developmental regions and ecological zones, using multistage cluster sampling. Weighted percentages account for the complex design; reading of the national total row. Partial, historical coverage: a women’s group, without estimates for men or all ages. One recalled day does not measure usual consumption or volume. Beverage categories must not be added as if mutually exclusive.

Coffee and tea preparation. In 2016, reported previous-day consumption was tea for 59.3% of women, coffee for 1.2% and Tibetan tea for 0.9%. Tibetan tea was defined as tea mixed with ghee and salt.

Women aged 15–49 in Nepal; the table includes 2351 unweighted participants, pregnant and non-pregnant. Reported consumption on the day before interview, national 2016 survey. Survey stratified by developmental regions and ecological zones, using multistage cluster sampling. Weighted percentages account for the complex design; reading of the national total row. Partial, historical coverage: one-day frequency in women, without serving volume or preparation method for coffee or ordinary tea. Does not report how much milk or sugar was added. Categories may overlap; does not represent the whole population’s usual consumption.

Drinks with meals. In the Bhaktapur group, tea was recorded in the breakfast period for 86·9% of women, the lunch period for 62·4% and the dinner period for 5·2%.

Observation period: 2008–2009. 466 lactating women aged 17–44 in Bhaktapur, Nepal, January 2008–February 2009. Breakfast: 06.00–12.00; lunch: 12.00–18.00; dinner: 18.00–0.00, using the study’s time periods. Three 24-hour recalls on non-consecutive days. Reading the percentage columns for women consuming tea in each period; the original centred decimal dot is retained. Partial, local and historical coverage: tea only in this cohort, without a national distribution of all beverages. A time period does not establish simultaneous drinking with solid food. Percentages are not energy shares or consumed volumes.

Nutrition and dietary patterns

Energy and nutrients. Estimated usual daily intake was 2023 kcal of energy, 53 g of protein, 30 g of fat and 383 g of carbohydrate in the study group.

Observation period: 2008–2009. 466 lactating women aged 17–44 in Bhaktapur, Nepal. Observations from January 2008 to February 2009; energy in kcal/day and macronutrients in g/day. Three 24-hour recalls on non-consecutive days; food and recipe composition used to calculate nutrients, with usual intake estimated using the Multiple Source Method. Partial, local and historical coverage: no fibre figure is verified in this selection. Does not represent Nepal’s current diet or every population group; recall and composition tables introduce uncertainty. These are intake estimates, not recommendations.

Salt and sugars. Mean salt intake was estimated at 9.1 g/day in the national 2019 analysis.

4361 participants aged 15–69 with urine samples analysed; pregnant participants and unsuitable samples were excluded under the protocol. Population survey conducted from February to May 2019; quantity expressed as salt. Population mean estimated from spot urine samples using the INTERSALT Southern European equation. The study’s published salt figure is retained. Partial coverage: salt only, without verified total, added or free sugar figures. Not direct 24-hour urine collection or an exact individual measure. The equation had not been evaluated in the Nepalese population; medication and renal function may affect estimation.

Dietary patterns. In the 2021 sample, reported patterns were vegetarian for 20.4%, vegan for 1.5%, non-vegetarian for 76.4% and flexitarian for 1.7%.

Analytical sample of 461 Nepalese young adults aged 18–35, with English skills and access to the online survey. February 24 to March 8, 2021. Vegetarian: avoids meat and fish but eats eggs and dairy; vegan: excludes animal products; non-vegetarian: eats everything; flexitarian: mainly vegetarian with occasional meat. Cross-sectional online survey using convenience snowball sampling, distributed through social media and researchers’ contacts; participants reported their dietary classification. Partial coverage: non-probability sample selected by language and Internet access and concentrated in Kathmandu Valley. These percentages are not national prevalence estimates. Does not verify consumed foods or quantities.

Shopping, prices and waste

Food expenditure. Food accounted for 53% of adjusted annual consumption expenditure per person for comparison across periods.

Observation period: 2022–2023. People in Nepalese households covered by NLSS IV; 9600 households interviewed. Fieldwork from July 2022 to June 2023. The figure compares 2022 with 2011 using the same method. National two-stage stratified survey; seven-day food recall, annualized by the survey and adjusted for regional and seasonal prices. Partial coverage: a share of adjusted consumption per person, not income or a nominal household share. A monetary monthly amount per person has not been verified here.

Cost of a common basket. The fixed reference basket cost 73.2 NPR per person per day in April 2022.

Observation period: 2022. Model basket for one person; national market-monitoring reference. Per person per day: medium-grain white rice 350 g; lentils 90 g; soybean oil 35 g; egg 60 g; sugar 35 g; iodized salt 5 g; cow milk 100 g; dark green leaves 30 g. Cost calculated from fixed quantities and monitored retail prices. Prices are trader-reported and do not necessarily represent transaction amounts. Partial historical coverage: neither observed household expenditure nor an intake recommendation. Does not establish current prices or comparisons with baskets of different composition. April sampling details are not established here.

Cost of specific meals. The menu listed vegetarian thali at 275 NPR and chicken thali at 300 NPR.

Options offered by Mother’s Kitchen in Kathmandu, Nepal. Menu for December 7–12, 2025. Full thali for each option; chicken thali lists chicken curry, roti, rice, dal, salad or achar. Direct reading of the provider’s dated menu; advertised prices per option, without calculating averages or home-cooking costs. Partial coverage: one provider and one historical week. Does not represent national or current prices. Grams per serving are unspecified; delivery charges and extras have not been included.

Grocery shopping locations. Small local shops were preferred for grains, pulses, packaged foods and soft drinks; specialty shops for dairy, sweets, fried snacks and bakery products.

Food-specific outlet preferences in the local sample. Qualitative partial coverage: does not quantify expenditure shares by channel, supermarket or online shopping. Not a national sample; selection not established here.

Shopping frequency. 55% reported buying fresh groceries twice a week and 72% buying storable groceries monthly.

51 households with complete responses in Gauradaha, Jhapa district. February 2025; separate categories for fresh and storable groceries. Initial random selection of 99 households; interviews and a week-long self-administered questionnaire. Published percentages are retained. Partial local coverage with substantial non-response. Not a national average of weekly visits; average basket size has not been verified.

Prepared food and delivery. Median spending per purchase occasion for fried snacks was 80 NPR.

450 participants in two Kathmandu wards, interviewed November 8–20, 2020. Category including samosa, namkeen and chaat; money per purchase in the 2020 sample. Local consumer interview survey; participant-reported responses. Partial coverage: not a price per serving or daily/monthly spending. Quantity per purchase, consumption frequency, delivery and national share not verified.

Household food waste. Prominent reasons for food not being consumed were preparing too much, poor appearance, smell or taste, and pests including rodents.

Local qualitative findings on reasons for loss of food intended for human consumption. Partial coverage: does not establish kg per person per year or a comparable edible/inedible split. Includes routes such as animal feeding. High non-response; does not represent all Nepal.

Seasons and celebrations

Seasonal produce. In the Terai, bitter gourd and pumpkin have a March–June harvest season; at high altitudes, mustard greens are produced from June to September.

2021 study; local seasonal windows for the specified crops, not an import calendar. Partial indicative coverage: varies with altitude, microclimate and protected cultivation. Does not quantify monthly supply or guarantee availability in every locality. Does not establish intake or national consumption prevalence.

Celebration food. At Janai Purnima or Gunhi Punhi, observed at full moon, Kathmandu Valley Newars prepare kwati from sprouted beans. Yomari Punhi is associated with steamed yomari made from newly harvested rice flour, filled with chaku or khuwa, and sesame.

Janai Purnima: relative full-moon reference. Yomari Punhi: new rice harvest festival; no Gregorian day is fixed here. Partial coverage: examples of festivals and preparations, without national frequency or quantities. Lunar references need a date for each year; a current Gregorian calendar has not been established here.